英语国家概况名词解释汇总

英语国家概况名词解释汇总

英语国家概况名词解释系列（1）

Amerigo Vespucci----Amerigo Vespucci, a navigator, proved

that the land was not India,but a new continent. Therefore, the

land was named America after.

The Puritans----The Puritans were wealthy, well-educated

gentlemen. They wanted to purify the Church of England and

threatened with religious persecution, the Puritans leaders saw

the New world as the a refuge provided by God for those He

meant to save.

（2）

The Bill of Rights----In 1789, James Madison introduced in

the House of Representatives a series of amendments which later

were drafted into twelve proposed amendments and sent to the

states for ratification. Ten of them were ratified in 1791 and the

first ten amendments to the constitution were called the Bills of

Rights because they were to insure individual liberties.

The Emancipation Proclamation----After the Civil war began,

Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation to win more

support at home and abroad. It granted freedom to all slaves in

areas still controlled by the Confederacy.

（3）

Pilgrims Thanksgiving Day----The Pilgrims in 1620, 201 of

them sailed to the New World in a ship called Mayflower. The first

winter after their arrival was very cold and when spring came, half

of them were dead. Then the Indians came to their help and

taught them how to grow corn. They had a good harvest that

year. So they invited the Indians and held the first Thanksgiving

celebration in America to give thanks to God.

The Chunnel----In 1985 the British government and French

government decided to build a channel tunnel, which is called

“Chunnel”, under the Straits of Dover so that England and

France could be joined together by road. The Chunnel was open

to traffic in May 1994.

（4）

Eisteddfod----Eisteddfod is the Welsh word for “sitting”

National Eidteddfod is the most famous festival of music and

verse in Wales. It takes place each August and lasts for about a

week. The highlight of the festival is competition for the best epic

poem about Wales written and read in Welsh. The winner is

crowned Board, considered the supreme honour in Wales. In this

way the Welsh people keep the Welsh language and culture alive.

Cockney----A cockney is a Londoner who is born within the

sound of Bow Bells-the Bells of the church of St. Mary-LeBow in

east London.

（5）

Stonehenge----It is a group of huge monuments of grant

rock Slabs on salisbury plain in Southwest England built as long

ago as the New Stone Age. It is generally believed that

stonehenge served some sort of religious purposes.

The Celts----The Celts came to Britain in three main waves.

The first wave were the Gales, the second wave were the Brythons

and the Belgae came about 150BC. The Celts were practised

farmers. The Celtic tribes are ancestors of the Highland Scots, the

Irish and the Welsh, And their languages are the basis of both

Welsh and Gaelic. They religion was Druidism.

（6）

Norman Conquest----The Norman Conquest of 1066 is

perhaps the best-known event in English history. William the

conqueror confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his

Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong

Norman government. So the feudal system was completely

established in England.

Alfred the Great----He was king of Wessex, one of the seven

Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms. It was he who led the Anglo-Saxon to

flight against the invading Danes and maintained peace for a

long time. Alfred was not only a brave king at wartime, but also

a wise king at peacetime. He encouraged education and

introduced a legal system. He is known as “the father of the

British navy”.

（7）

St. Augustine----In 597,Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine,

the Prior of St. Andrew’s Monastery in Rome, to England to

convert the heathen English to Christianity. That year, St.

Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. Augustine

was remarkably successful in converting the king and the nobility,

but the conversion of the common people was largely due to the

missionary activities of the monks in the north.

Domesday Book----It is a book compiled by a group of clerks

under the sponsorship of King William the First in 1086. The book

was in fact a property record. It was the result of a general survey

of England. It recorded the extent, value, state of cultivation, and

ownership of the land. It was one of the important measures

adopted by William I to establish the full feudal system in

England. Today, it is kept in the Public Records Office in London.

（8）

Geoffrey Chaucer----He was an important English poet in the

fourteenth century. His best known is The Canterbury Tales,

which describes a group of pilgrims travelling to Canterbury to

visit Thomas Becket’s tomb. Because he was the first important

English poet to write in English. He has been known as the

“Father of English Poetry”.

The Black Death----It is a modern name given to the dearly

bubonic plague, an epidemic disease spread through Europe in

the fourteenth century particularly in 1348-1349. It came without

warning, and without any cue. In England, it killed almost half of

the total

（9）

The Wars of Roses玫瑰战争----the name Wars of the Roses

was refer to the battles between the House of Lancaster,

symbolized by the read rose, and that of York, symbolized by the

white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of

Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and put ht

country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars, English

feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility

was much weakened.

The Glorious Revolution of 1688光荣革命---- In 1685 Charles

II died and was succeeded by his brother James II. James was

brought up in exile in Europe, was a Catholic. He hoped to rule

without giving up his personal religious vies. But England was no

more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years ago. So

the English politicians rejected James II, and appealed to a

Protestant king, William of Orange, to invade and take the English

throne. William landed in England in 1688. The takeover was

relatively smooth, with no bloodshed, nor any execution of the

king. This was known as the Glorious Revolution.

（10）

The Gunpowder Plot of 1605火药阴谋案----The Gunpowder

population, causing far-reaching economic

consequences.

Plot of 1605 was the most famous of the Catholic conspiracies.

On Nov. 5,1605, a few fanatical Catholics attempted to blow King

James and his ministers up in the House of Parliament where Guy

Fawkes had planted barrels of gun-powder in the cellars. The

immediate result was the execution of Fawkes and his fellow-conspirators and imposition of severe anti-Catholic laws. The

long-term result has been an

annual celebration on Nov. 5, when a bonfire is lit to turn a

guy and a firework display is arranged. Blood Mary血腥玛丽----It is the nickname given to Mary I, the English Queen who

succeeded to the throne after Henry VIII. She was a devout

Catholic and had so many Protestants burnt to death that she is

remembered less by her official title Mary I by her nickname

Blood Mary.

（11）

Thatcherism撒切尔主义----The election of 1979 returned the

Conservative Party to power and Margaret Thatcher became the

first woman prime minister in Britain. Her policies are popularly

referred to as state-owned industries, the use of monetarist

policies to control inflation, the weaking of trade forces unions,

the strengthening of the role of market forces in the economy,

and an emphasis on law and order.

The Trade Union Act of 1871工会法----It legalized the trade

unions and give financial security. It meant that in law there was

no difference between money for benefic purposes and

collecting it to support strike action.

（12）

Agribusiness农业产业----The new farming has been called

“agribusiness”, because it is equipped and managed like an

industrial business with a set of inputs into the processes which

occur on the farm and outputs or products which leave the farm.

British disease英国病----The term “British disease”is now

often used to characterize Britain’s economic decline.

（13）

Constitutional monarchy君主立宪制----It is a political system

that has been practised in Britain since the Glorious revolution of

1688. According to this system, the Constitution is superior to the

Monarch. In law, the Monarch has many supreme powers, but in

practice, the real power of monarchy has been greatly reduced

and today the Queen acts solely on the advice of her ministers.

She reigns but does not rule. The real power lies in the Parliament,

or to be exact, in the House of Commons.

Privy Council枢密院----A consultative body of the British

monarch. Its origin can be traced back to the times of the

Norman Kings. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, its

importance was gradually diminished and replaced by the

Cabinet. Today, it is still a consultation body of the British

monarch, Its membership is about 400, and includes al Cabinet

ministers, the speaker of the House of Commons, the

Archbishops of Canterbury and York, and senior British and

Commonwealth statesmen.

（14）

The National Health Service----It is a very important part of

the welfare system in Britain. It is a nationwide organization

based on Acts of Parliament. It provides all kinds of free or nearly

free medical treatment both in hospital and outside. It is financed

mainly by payments by the state out of general taxation. People

are not obliged to use this service. The service is achieving its

main objectives with outstanding success.

Comprehensive schools----Comprehensives schools take

pupils without reference to ability or aptitude and provide a

wide-ranging secondary education for all or most of the children

in a district.

（15）

Reuters----It was founded in 1851 by the German, Julius

Reuter. It is now a publicly owned company, employing over

11000 staff in 80 countries. It has more than 1300 staff journalists

and

photographers.

The Crown Court----A criminal court that deals with the more

serious cases and holds sessions in towns throughout England

and Wales. It is presided over either by a judge from the High

Court of Justice or a local full-time judge.

（16）

The Great lakes----The Great Lakes are the five lakes in the

northeast. They are Lake Superior which is the largest fresh water

lake in the world, Lake Michigan (the only one entirely in the U.S.),

Lake Huron, Lake Eire and Lake Ontario. They are all located

between Canada and the United States expect Lake Michigan.

The Mississippi----The Mississippi has been called “father

of waters “or” old man river”. It and Its tributaries drain one

of the richest farm areas in the world. It is the fourth longest river

in the world and the most important river in the United States.

（17）

Uncle Tom’s Cabin----It was a sentimental but powerful

antislavery novel written by Harriet Beecher Stowe. It converted

many readers to the abolitionist cause.

Gettysburg----It refer to the short speech President Lincoln

made when he dedicated the national cemetery at Gettyburg. He

ended the speech with “the government of the people, by the

people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth”.

（18）

The Red Scare----When the WWI was over, there existed a

highly aggressive and intolerant nationalism. Between 1919 and

1920, the Red Scare happened. On Nov.7,1919 and Jan.2,1920,

the Justice Department launched two waves of mass arrests. Over

4000 suspected Communists and radical were arrested.

The New Deal----In order to deal with the Depression,

President Franklin Roosevelt put forward the New Deal program.

It passed a lot of New Deal laws and set up many efficient social

security systems. The New Deal helped to save American

democracy and the development of American economy.

（19）

Truman Doctrine----On Mar.12, 1949, President Truman put

forward the Truman Doctrine in his speech to the joint session of

Congress. The Doctrine meant to support any country which said

it was fighting communism.

Marshall Plan----It was announced by George Marshall on

June.5, 1947, and was the economic aid plan for Western Europe.

It was also used to prevent the loss of Western Europe into the

Soviet sphere.

（20）

London smog----In 195, the sulphur dioxide in the four-day

London smog, an unhealthy atmosphere formed by mixing

smoke and dirt with fog. It left 4000 people dead or dying. Since

then most cities in Britain have introduced “clean air zones”

whereby factories and households are only allowed to burn

smokeless fuel.

Family Doctor----In order to obtain the benefits of the NHS

a person must normally be registered on the list of a general

practitioner, sometimes known as a “family doctor”. The family

doctor

gives treatment or prescribes medicine, or, if necessary,

arranges for the patient to go to hospital or to be seen at home

by a specialist.

（21）

Marvellous Melbourne----After the gold rush in 1850s and

1860s, there was an important revolution in transport, especially

with the network of tram and railway systems. This changed the

pace of urban life and the appearance of the city and soon people

were calling the city “Marvellous Melbourne”. But by the 1890s

outsiders were calling the city “Marvellous Melbourne”

because of the bad smell of the city.

Waitangi Day----In 1840 the first official governor, William

Hobson, was sent to negotiate with Maori leaders. In 1840

Hobson, representing Queen Victoria, and some Maori chiefs,

signed the Treaty of Waitangi. Modern New Zealand was founded.

The anniversary of the signing, February 6, is celebrated as New

Zealand National Day, Waitangi Day, and is a national holiday.

（22）

Multiculturalism----The term multiculturalism was coined in

Canada in the late 1960s. It was in official use in Australia by 1973.

In other words, under multiculturalism migrant groups are able

to speak their own language and maintain their own customs.

Multiculturalism as a policy recognizes that social cohesion is

attained by tolerating differences within an agreed legal and

constitutional framework.

Quiet Revolution----Ever since 1763, when France lost its

empire in North America to England, French Canadians have

struggled to preserve their language and culture. In the early

1960s French Canadians became more vocal in their protests. In

particular, they complained that were kept out of jobs in

government and in some large businesses because they spoke

only French. They have been struggling more rights common

which was called “Quiet revolution”.

英语国家概况精讲系列（一）

Chapter 1

第一章

Land and People

英国的国土与人民

I. Different Names for Britain and its Parts

英国的不同名称及其各组成部分

phical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and

England.

地理名称：不列颠群岛，大不列颠和英格兰。

al name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and

Northern Ireland.

官方正式名称：大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。

British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great

Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.

不列颠群岛由两个大岛—大不列颠岛（较大的一个）和爱尔兰岛，及成千上万个小岛组成。

political divisions on the island of Great Britain:

England, Scotland and Wales.

大不列颠岛上有三个政治区：英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。

(1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the

largest, most populous section.

英格兰位于大不列颠岛南部，是最大，人口最稠密的地区。

(2) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three

natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands;

the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh

苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部。它有三大自然区：北部高地，中部低地及南部山陵。首府：爱丁堡。

(3) Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff

威尔士位于大不列颠的西部。首府：加的夫

(4) Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital:

Belfast.

北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域。首府：贝尔法斯特。

Commonwealth (of nations) is a free association of

independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It was

founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until 1991.

英联邦是曾为英国殖民地的、但现已独立国家所构成的自由联合体。它成立于1931年，至1990年止已有50个成员国。

II. Geographical Features 英国的地理特征

phical position of Britain:

英国的地理位置：

Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea. It lies in

the North Atlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe. It is

separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel in the

south and the North Sea in the east.

英国是一个岛国。它位于大西洋北部，与欧洲大陆的北海岸隔海相望。南面的英吉利海峡和东面的北海将它与欧洲其它部分隔开。

north and west of Britain are mainly highlands; and the

east and southeast are mostly lowlands.

英国的西部和北部主要是高地，东部和东南部主要是低地。

III. Rivers and Lakes 河流与湖泊

Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Britain (1,343m).

本尼维斯山为英国最高峰，海拔1,343米。

Severn River is the longest river in Britain (338km).

塞文河是英国最长的河流。全长338公里。

Thames River is the second longest and most important river

in Britain. (336km).

泰晤士河是英国第二大河，也是英国最重要的河。全长336公里。

Lough Neagh is the largest lake in Britain which is located in

Northern Ireland. (396 square kilometres).

讷湖（内伊湖）是英国最大的湖，位于北爱尔兰。面积为396平方公里。

River Clyde is the most important river in Scotland.

克莱德河是苏格兰最重要的河流。

Snowdonia is the highest mountain in Wales.（1,085m）

斯诺多尼亚是威尔士的最高点，海拔1,085米。

IV. Climate 气候

1. Britain"s favorable climate 英国有利的气候条件：

Britain has a maritime climate-winters are not too cold and

summers are not too hot. It has a steady reliable rainfall

throughout the whole year. The temperature varies within a small

range.

英国属于海洋性气候：冬季不过于寒冷，夏季不过于炎热。全年有稳定可靠的降雨量，气温变化幅度小。

factors influence the climate in Britain:

影响英国气候的因素：

1）The surrounding waters tend to balance the seasonal

differences by heating up the land in winter and cooling it off in

summer;

环绕四周的海水。冬天，海水可使岛内气温升高，夏天则使气温降低，从而起到平衡季节温差的作用；

2）The prevailing south-west winds or the Westerlies blow

over the country all the year round bringing warm and wet air in

winter and keeping the temperatures moderate;

一年四季盛行的西南风和西风在冬季从大西洋带来温暖、潮湿的

空气，使气温适宜；

3）The North Atlantic Drift passes the western coast of the

British Isles and warms them.

北大西洋暖流经不列颠群岛西海岸，使气候变暖。

ll 降雨量：

Britain has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole

year. The average annual rainfall in Britain is over 1,000mm. There

is a water surplus in the north and west, and a water deficit in the

south and east.

英国全年降雨量稳定，平均降雨量超过1000毫米。英国北部、西部雨量过多，但是南部、东部有所缺乏。

英语国家概况精讲系列（二）

V. The People 人口

tion distribution 人口分布：

Britain has a population of about 57 millions and it is very

unevenly distributed. 90% of the population is urban and only 10%

is rural. The population of Britain is made up mainly of the English

(81.5%), the Scottish (9.6%), the Welsh (1.9%), the Irish (2.4%), the

Northern Irish (1.8%) and other peoples (2.8%).

英国人口约570万，分布极不均匀，90%是城市人口，只有10%是农村人口。英国人口组成为：英格兰人（81.5%），苏格兰人（9.6%），威尔士人（1.9%），爱尔兰人、北爱尔兰人和其他民族居民。

difference between the ancestors of the English and

Scots, Welsh and Irish:

英伦三岛民族的祖先：

The ancestors of the English are Anglo-Saxons, the Scots,

Welsh and Irish are Celts.

英格兰人祖先属于盎格鲁—萨克逊人，而苏格兰、威尔士和爱尔兰人属于凯尔特人。

difference in character个性差别：

The Welsh are emotional and cheerful people. They are

music lovers and are proud of their past.

威尔士人感情丰富，情绪高涨，热爱音乐，为过去感到自豪。

The Scots are said to be a serious, cautious and thrifty people,

and they are also hospitable, generous and friendly.

苏格兰人通常被认为严肃、谨慎而且节俭，但是他们同样也热情、大方且友好。

The Irish are charm and vivacity. 爱尔兰人充满魅力，生性活泼。

difference in speech between southern England and

northern England:

英格兰南方人和北方人语言上的差别：

Southerners speak the type of English close to BBC English;

In northern England, regional speech is usually "broader" than

that of southern England.

南方人讲的英语接近BBC，北英格兰人的发音通常要比南英格兰人宽。

Welsh keep their language and culture in this way: 威尔士人以这样的方式使他们的语言及文化保持活力。

Throughout the year they have festivals of song and dance

and poetry called Eisteddfodau. The great event of the year is the

National Eisteddfod. On these occasions competitions are held in

Welsh poetry, music, singing and art.

一年中他们有称之为“艺术年会”的唱歌、跳舞、诗歌节。一年中最重要的节日是全国诗歌音乐比赛会。在那里会举行威尔士诗歌、音乐、唱歌和艺术比赛。

main problem in Northern Ireland: 北爱尔兰存在的主要问题：

The fight between the Protestants who are the dominant

group, and the Roman Catholics, who are seeking more social,

political and economic opportunities.

作为统治者的新教徒和要求更多社会、政治及经济权利的罗马天主教徒之间的斗争。

ants: 移民：

About three million have come to Britain to live and find

work since World War II.

自从二战以来约有三百万人来英国生活、工作。

英语国家概况精讲系列（三）

Chapter 2

第二章

The Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066)

英国的起源（公元前5000年—1066年）

Settlers （5000BC-55BC）

早期的居民（公元前5000年—公元前55年）

1．The first known settlers of Britain were the Iberians.

人们所知的英国最早居民是伊比利来人。

2．At about 2000 BC the Beaker Folk arrived from the areas

now know as Holland and Rhineland.

约公元前2000年，从现在的荷兰和莱茵兰地区来了宽口陶器人。

3．The Celts began to arrive Britain about 700 BC.

约公元前700年，克尔特人来到不列颠岛。

4．The Celts came to Britain in three main waves.

克尔特人来到不列颠有三次GC。

The first wave were the Gaels-came about 600 BC.

第一次GC是约公元前600年盖尔人的来临。

The second wave were the Brythons-came about 400 BC.

第二次GC是约公元前400年布立吞（不列颠）人的抵达。

The third wave were the Belgae-came about 150 BC.

第三次是约公元前150年比利其人的到达。

II. Roman Britain (55BC-410AD)

罗马人统治时期的英国（公元前55年—410年）

h recorded history begins with the Roman invasion. In

55BC and 54BC, Julius Caesar, a Roman general, invaded Britain

twice. In AD 43, the Emperor Claudius invaded Britain successfully.

For nearly 400 years, Britain was under the Roman occupation,

though it was never a total occupation.

有记录的英国历史开始于罗马人的入侵。公元前55年和54年，罗马将军朱略斯·凯撒两次入侵英国，均未成功。直到公元43年，克劳锹才成功占领不列颠。将近四百年里，英国人处于罗马人的占领下，但这并非是完全的占领。

2. Roman’s influence on Britain.

The Roman built many towns, road, baths, temples and

buildings. They make good use of Britain’s natural resources.

They also brought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain.

罗马人修建了许多城镇网，道路，澡堂，庙宇和其他建筑物。他们还很好地利用了英国的自然资源。罗马人还把基督教这门新宗教带到不列颠。

s for limited Roman influence on Britain.

罗马对不列颠的影响有限的原因。

First, the Romans always treated the Britons as a subject

people of slave class. Second, never during the 4 centuries did

the Romans and Britons intermarry. Third, the Romans had no

impact on the language or culture of ordinary Britons.

首先，罗马人把不列颠人当作奴隶阶段的属民来对待。其次，在四世纪对罗马人和不列颠人通婚。最后，罗马人也未影响普通不列颠人的语言和文化。

英语国家概况精讲系列（四）

前些天，网友Samy给了我一个很好的建议。就是在每个部分的讲解前，先简要介绍一下本次讲解的内容。我也觉得有了这样的简要介绍，就可以使你们一目了然，然后再看后面的具体内容，就比较容

易理解。但是由于这个简要是我自己归纳而成，有些地方可能还存在一些缺陷，还望广大朋友能够谅解。

Summary: This is the second part of Chapter 2 (The Origins

of a Nation). It introduced some important events and important

people in England from 446 to 1066. These most important

events are The Anglos-Saxons’ invasion; The Vik ing and Danish

Invasions and The Norman Conquest. (简要：这是第二章“国家的起源”的第二部分。在这一部分里，主要是介绍了英国从公元446年到1066年所发生的重要事件及人物。这些重要事件分别是盎格鲁—撒克逊人的入侵，北欧海盗和丹麦人的入侵及诺曼征服)。

III. The Anglo-Saxons (446-871)

盎格鲁—撒克逊人（公元446—871年）

1．Basis of Modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons.

盎格鲁—萨克逊时代（奠定了英国的基础）

In the mid-5th century a new wave of invaders, Jutes, Saxons,

and Angles came to Britain. They were three Teutonic tribes.

The Jutes, who fished and farmed in Jutland, came to Britain

first. A Jutish chief became the King of Kent in 449. Then the

Saxons, users of the short-sword from northern Germany,

established their kingdom in Essex, Sussex and Wessex from the

end of the 5th century to the beginning of the 6th century. In the

second half of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th

century, the Angles, who also came from northern Germany and

were to give their name to the English people, settled in East

Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. These seven principal kingdoms

of Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia and

Northumbria have been given the name of Heptarchy.

五世纪中叶，朱特人、撒克逊人和盎格鲁人不断入侵不列颠。这是三支日耳曼（条顿）部落。居住在朱特兰岛（现丹麦南部）上从事打渔农耕的朱特人先抵不列颠。后来从德国北部来的

使用短剑的撒克逊人在埃撒克斯、苏塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王国，统治期从五世纪末至六世纪初。六世纪后半叶，同样来自德国北部的盎格鲁人，在东盎格利亚、麦西亚以及诺森伯利来定居，同时也他们也把名字给了英国人。这七个主要王国（肯特、埃塞克斯、苏塞克斯、威塞克斯、东盎格利亚、麦西亚和诺森伯利亚），合称为七王国。

2．The early Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity.

最早的盎格鲁—撒克逊人改信基督教。

The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to

Britain. Christianity soon disappeared, except among the Celts of

Cornwall, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. In 597, Pope Gregory I sent

St. Augustine, the Prior of St. Andrew’s Monastery in Rome, to

England to convert the heathen English to Christianity. In 579 St.

Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He was

remarkably successful in converting the king and the nobility, but

the conversion of the common people was largely due to the

missionary activities of the monks in the north.

盎格鲁—撒克逊人把日耳曼宗教带到了英国。除了康瓦尔、威尔士、苏格兰和爱尔兰中的克尔特人还信奉基督教外，基督教很快就消失了。公元597，教皇格里高一世把罗马圣安德鲁修道院的副院长圣奥古斯丁派遣到英格兰，其使命是使异教徒的英国人皈依基督教。公元579年圣奥古丁成为坎特伯雷大主教。在使国王和贵族皈依基督教方面，奥古斯丁特别成功。但是普通人的皈依很大程度上归功于北部修士们的传教活动。

3．The Early Anglo-Saxons make the contributions to the

English state.

早期盎格鲁—撒克逊人为英国做出的贡献。

The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state.

Firstly, they divided the country into shires, with shire courts and

shire reeves, or sheriffs, responsible for administering law.

Secondly, they devised the narrow-strip, three-field farming

system which continued to the 18th century. Thirdly, they also

established the manorial system. Finally, they created the Witan（council or meeting of the wisemen）to advise the king, the

basis of the Privy Council which still exists today.

盎格鲁—撒克逊人为英国国家的形成打下了基础。首先，他们把国家划分为郡，郡法庭和郡法官、或行政司法长官负责执法。其次，他们设计的窄条三圃田农耕制延用至18世纪。此外，他们还建立了领地制。最后，他们还创立了议会(贤人会议)，向国王提供建议，这就成为了今天仍存在的枢密院的基础。

IV．Viking and Danish invasions

北欧海盗和丹麦人的入侵

1．The invaders were the Norwegians and the Danes. They

attacked various parts of England from the end of the 8th century.

They became a serious problem in the 9th century, especially

between 835 and 878. They even managed to capture York, an

important center of Christianity in 867. By the middle of 9th

century, the Viking and the Danes were posing a threat to the

Saxon kingdom of Wessex.

入侵者是挪威人和丹麦人，从8世纪末开始，他们不断袭击英格兰的各个地方。9世纪，尤其是公元835-878年间已成为严重问题。他们甚至占领了约克郡，公元867年时的基督教中心。到9世纪中叶，北欧海盗和丹麦人威胁到撒克逊人的威撒克斯王国的安全。

2．King Alfred (849-899) and his contributions

艾尔弗雷德国王（849-899）和他所做出的贡献

Alfred was a king of Wessex. He defeated the Danes and

reached a friendly agreement with them in 879. The Danes

gained control of the north and east, while he ruled the rest. He

also converted some leading Danes into Christians.

He founded a strong fleet and is known as “ the father of

the British navy”. He reorganized the Saxon army, making it

more efficient. He translated a Latin book into English. He also

established schools and formulated a legal system. All this earns

him the title “Alfred the Great.”

阿尔弗雷德是威塞克斯的国王。他打败了丹麦人，并于公元879年与他们达成了友好协议。协议规定丹麦人控制英格兰北部和西部（丹麦法区），而他统治其他地区。他还劝服一些丹麦首领成为基督教徒。

他因为建立了强大舰队，而以“英国海军之父”闻名于世。他改组了“弗立德”（撒克逊军队），使之更为高效。他将一本拉丁语的书翻译成英语。同时他还建立了学校，并且阐明了法律制度。所有这一切使他当之无愧于“阿尔弗雷德大王。”的称号。

V．The Norman Conquest (1066)

诺曼征服（公元1066年）

1．Reasons for William’s invasion of England after

Edward’s death.

威廉在爱德华死后入侵英国的原因。

It was said that king Edward had promised the English throne

to William, but the Witan chose Harold as king. So William led his

army to invade England. In October 1066, during the important

battle of Hastings, William defeated Harold and killed him. One

Christmas Day, William was crowned king of England, thus

beginning the Norman Conquest of England.

据说，爱德华国王曾答应把英格兰王位传给诺曼底公爵威廉，但是贤人会议挑选了哈罗德为国王。公元1066年10月，在哈斯丁斯附近的激烈交锋中，威廉打败了哈罗德军队，同时哈罗德也在此战争中战死。

2．The Norman Conquest and its consequences

诺曼征服及其产生的影响。

The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known

event in English history. William the Conqueror confiscated

almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He

replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government.

He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman

government. So the feudal system was completely established in

England. Relations with the Continent were opened, and the

civilization and commerce were extended. Norman-French

culture, language, manners and architecture were introduced.

The Church was brought into closer connection with Rome, and

the church courts were separated from the civil courts.

1066年的诺曼征服也许是英国历史上的最著名事件。征服者威廉几乎没收了所有土地，将其分发给他的诺曼追随者。他用强有力的诺曼政府代替了软弱的萨克逊政府。于是，封建制度在英国完全建立。开放了与欧洲大陆的关系，文明和商业得到发展，引进了诺曼—法国文化、语言、举止和建筑。教会与罗马的联系更为密切，教会法庭与世俗法庭分离。

3．The English is a mixture of nationalities of different

origins. The ancestors of many English people were the ancient

Angles and Saxons. Some English people are of the Norman-French origin.

英国是一个集不同民族于一体的国家。许多英国人的祖先是古盎格鲁和撒克逊人。而还有一些英国人的是诺曼血统。

英语国家概况精讲系列（五）

This is one of the most difficult parts. In this part, I will

introduce some Kings in English history

and their reformations. Though we have to remember a lot

of things in this part, we also learn more about English history.

Chapter 3

第三章

The Shaping of the Nation (1066-1381)

英国的形成（公元1066-1381）

I. Norman Rule (1066-1381)

诺曼统治（公元1066-1381）

1. William"s Rule （1066-1087）

威廉一世的统治（公元1066-1087）

England"s feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror

在威廉统治下的英国封建制度

①Under William, the feudal system in England was

completely established. ②According to this system, the King

owned all the land personally. ③William gave his barons large

estates in England in return for a promise of military service and

a proportion of the land"s produce. ④These estates were

scattered far and wide over the country, so that those who held

them could not easily combine to rebel the king. ⑤The barons,

who had become William"s tenants-in-chief, parceled out land to

the lesser nobles, knights and freemen, also in return for goods

and services.

⑥At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villeins or serfs.

⑦One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that

all landowners must take the oath of allegiance，not only to their

immediate lord, but also to the king.

①在威廉统治下，英国的封建制度得到完全确立。②根据此制度，国王拥有全国所有土地。

③威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族，条件是换取对方服役和收租。④这些地产分散于各处，这样土地拥有者就不易联合起来反叛国王。⑤已成为国王土地承租人的贵族又把土地分配给小贵族、骑士和自由民，同样换取货物和服役。⑥在封建等级底层的是农奴。⑦英国封建制独有的特色就是，无论是土地承租人还是二佃户，都必须要宣誓效忠于直接领主，而且要效忠于国王。

2. King Henry II and his reforms

亨利二世国王和他的改革

The ways King Henry II consolidate the monarchy.

亨利二世巩固君主制的途径。

Henry II took some measures to consolidate the monarchy.

He forced the Flemish mercenaries to leave England; recalled

grants of Royal lands made by his previous king Stephen;

demolished many castles built in Stephen’s time; strengthened

and widened the powers of his sheriffs and relied for armed

support upon a militia composed of English freemen.

亨利二世采取了一些措施巩固君主制。他迫使弗兰德斯雇佣军离开英国，收回史蒂芬森赠出皇室土地；拆除几十座史蒂芬森时造德城堡，加强并扩大了他的行政长官们的权力，依靠由英国自由民组成的民兵获取军事支持。

The ways Henry II reform the courts and the law.

亨利二世对法院及法律进行改革的方式。

King Henry II greatly strengthened the Court and extended

its judicial work. He divided the whole country into six circuits

and appointed justices to each. Cases were therefore heard

before the intermittent justices who applied the law impartially.

During his reign, a common law was gradually established in

place of the previous laws of the local barons. He also introduced

a new

jury system to replace the old ordeal-based trial system.

Besides, he shifted the trial of clergymen charged with criminal

offenses from the Bishop"s court to the King"s court.

亨利二世大大加强了王家法院，扩展了其司法工作的职权范围。他将全国分为六个审制区。案件更多地由巡回法官审理，并不偏不倚地使用法律。在他统治时期，逐渐建立起超越地方领主法律的普遍法。另外，他用陪审员制度代替了旧的残酷的审判制度。他坚持被控犯有刑事罪的神职人员应由国王法庭审判，而不由主教法庭审判。

II．Contents and the significance of the Great Charter

《大宪章》的内容及意义

Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the

press of the barons. It consists of sixty-three clauses. Its

important provisions are as follows: (1) no tax should be made

without the approval of the Grand Council; (2) no freemen should

be arrested, imprisoned or deprived of their property; (3) the

Church should possess all its rights, together with freedom of

elections; (4) London and other towns should retain their

traditional rights and privileges, and (5) there should be the same

weights and measures throughout the country. Although The

Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the

foundation of English liberties, it was a statement of the feudal

and legal relationships between the Crown and the barons, a

guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the

powers of the king. The spirit of the Great Charter was the

limitation of the powers of the king, keeping them within the

bounds of the feudal law of the land.

《大宪章》是约翰国王1215年在封建贵族压力下签定的。《大宪章》总共63条，其中最重要的内容是：(1) 未经大议会同意，不得征税；(2) 只有根据国家有关法律才能逮捕、监禁自由人以及剥夺他们的财产；(3)教会应享受其所有权利且有选举自由；（4）伦敦和其它城镇应保留其古时的权力和特权；(5) 全国要使用统一的重量和长度度量衡。尽管人们普遍认为《大宪章》为英国的自由奠定了基础，但该宪章只是规定国王和贵族之间封建关系和法律关系的文件，保证了教会的自由，限制了国王权利。《大宪章》的精神是限制国王权力，使其在英国封建法律允许的范围内活动。

origins of the English Parliament

英国议会的起源

The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the current

British Parliament. In 1265, Simon de Montfort summoned the

Great Council, together with two knights from each county and

two citizens from each town. It later developed into the House of

Lords and the House of Commons. Its main role was to offer

advice. There were no elections or parties. And the most

important part of Parliament was the House of Lords.

大议会是当今英国议会的原型。1265年，西门德孟福尔召开大议会，各县有两名骑士，各镇有两名市民参加。大议会发展到后来演变成议会，分为上议院和下议院。其作用是咨询而非决定；也没有选举和政党。议会的最重要的部分是上议院。

英语国家概况精讲系列（六）

IV．The Hundred Years" War and its consequences.

百年战争及其结果

The Hundred Years’ War refers to the war between England

and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453. The

causes of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. The

territorial causes were related with the possession by the English

kings of the large duchy in

France, while the French kings coveted this large slice. The

economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing

towns in Flanders, which were the importer of English wool, but

they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides, England"s

desire to stop France from giving aid to Scots and a growing

sense of nationalism were the other causes.

The English"s being driven out of France is regarded as a

blessing for both countries. If the English had remained in France,

the superior size and wealth of France would have hindered the

development of a separate English national identity, while France

was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much

French territory.

百年战争指1337年到1453年英法之间一场断断续续的战争，战争的起因既有领土因素又有经济因素。领土起因尤其是与英国国王拥有法国的阿基坦大片公爵领地有密切关系，随着法国国王势力日增，他们渴望占领这片在他们领土内的土地。经济原因则与弗兰德斯有关。弗兰德斯地区生产棉布的城镇是英国羊毛的主要进口商，但这些城镇在政治上却效忠法国国王。其他原因还有英国试图阻止法国帮助苏格兰人，以及不断觉醒的民族意识。

战争的结果：把英国人赶出法国对两个国家都是幸事：若国车人继续留在法国，那么法国人在领土和财富上所占的优势必然会阻碍分离的英国民族的发展；而法国民族被外国势力占领了众多的领土，发展更是长期受阻。

V. The Black Death

黑死病

The Black Death is the modern name given to the deadly

epidemic disease spread by rat fleas across Europe in the 14th

century. It swept through England in the summer of 1348. It

reduced England"s population from four million to two million by

the end of the 14th century.

The economic consequences of the Black Death were far-reaching. As a result of the plague, much land was left untended

and there was a terrible shortage of labour. The surviving

peasants had better bargaining power and were in a position to

change their serfdom into paid labour. Some landlords, unable

or unwilling to pay higher wages, tried to force peasants back

into serfdom. In 1351 the government issued a Statute of

Labourers which made it a crime for peasants to ask for more

wages or for their employers to pay more than the rates laid

down by the Justices of the Peace.

黑死病是指由鼠疫蚤传播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫，是一种流行疾病，在14世纪传播了到欧洲。1348年夏天横扫全英国。英国的人口在14

世纪末从400万锐减至200万。

黑死病对经济造成的后果更为深远。鼠疫导致了大片土地无人照管和劳动力极度匮乏。地主想把耕地变为人力需求较少的牧场。存活的农民处于有利的计价还价地位，从农奴变为雇佣劳动力。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付较高工资的地主想方设法迫使农民重返农奴地位。1351年政府颁布“劳工法令”，规定农民们涨工资的要求，或者是雇主支付比地方官制订的工资水平要高的工资都是犯罪。

VI. The Peasant Uprising of 1381 and its significance

1381年农民起义及其意义

Armed villagers and townsmen of Kent and Essex, led by Wat

Tyler and Jack Straw, moved on London in June, 1381. The king

was forced to accept their demands. Most of the rebels dispersed

and went home, while Tyler and other leaders stayed on for more

rights. Tyler was killed at a meeting with the king.

The uprising was brutally suppressed, but it had far-reaching

significance in English history. First, it directed against the rich

clergy, lawyers and the landowners. Second, it dealt a telling blow

to villeinage, and third, a new class of yeomen farmers emerged,

paving the way to the development

of capitalism.

1381年6月，在瓦特泰勒和杰克斯特劳领导下，凯特郡和埃塞克斯郡的农民和市民武装起来发动起义，并向伦敦进发。国王被迫接受了他们的要求。大多数起义农民解散回家，但泰勒和其他坚决的农民留下来要求得到更多的法律、宗教和政治权利。泰勒在又一次与国王的会见中被杀死。

尽管起义被血腥镇压，但在英国历史上留下了深远的影响。这次起义具有真实的社会性，把矛头直接对准了富有的教职人员、律师和地主。这次起义沉重打击了封建农奴制度，产生了全新的自耕农阶级，为资本主义发展铺设了道路。

英语国家概况精讲系列（七）

Chapter 4

第四章

Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1688)

向现代英国的过渡

I. Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1485)

向现代英国的过渡(1455年-1485年)

The Wars of Rose

玫瑰战争

The name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between

the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the read rose, and that of

York, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor,

descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld

in 1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From

these Wars, English feudalism received its death blow. The great

medieval nobility was much weakened.

玫瑰战争是指，从1455年到1485年，以红玫瑰为象征的兰开斯特大家族和以白玫瑰为象征的约克家族之间战争的普遍接受的名称。1485年，兰开斯特家族的后代亨利都铎取得了博斯沃恩战役的胜利，建立了都铎王朝。这些战争使英国的封建主义受到致命打击，贵族阶层受到了削弱。

II. The English Reformation

英国的宗教改革

Henry VIII was above all responsible for the religious reform

of the church. There were three main causes: a desire for change

and reform in the church had been growing for many years and

now, encouraged by the success of Martin Luther, many people

believed its time had come; the privilege and wealth of the clergy

were resented; and Henry needed money.

最重要的是，亨利八世负责进行教会的宗教改革。改革原因有三个主要方面：改革教会的渴望已有多年，现在又受马丁路德成功的鼓

舞，许多人认为时机已到；人们痛恨教职人员的威望和财富；亨利需要钱。

The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended in

freedom from the Papacy. Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine

of Aragon but the Pope refused. Henry’s reforms was to get rid

of the English Church’s connection with the Pope, and to make

an independent Church of England. He made this break with

Rome gradually betwee n 1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of

England’s monasteries and nunneries because they were more

loyal to the Pope than to their English kings. The laws such as the

Act of succession of 1534 and the Act of Supremacy of 1535

made his reform possible. He established the church of England

as the national church of the country, and he made himself the

supreme head of the church of England.

改革以争取离婚而开始，以脱离教皇而告终。亨利八世欲与阿拉贡的凯瑟琳离婚，但是教皇拒绝了。亨利改革的目的是摆脱英国教会与教皇的联系，成立独立的英格兰教会。1529年至1534年间逐渐地与罗马脱离了关系。他解散了所有英国的修道院和修女院，因为后者对教皇比对英国国王更忠诚。1534年的《继位法》和1535年的《至尊法案》使改革具有了可行性。1535年他获“英格兰教会最高首脑”之称号。

Henry VIII’s reform stressed the power of the monarch and

certainly strengthened Henry’s position; Parliament had never

done such a long and important piece of work before, its

importance g rew as a result. His attack on the Pope’s power

encouraged many critics of abuses of the Catholic Church.

England was moving away form Catholicism towards

protestaintism.

改革的三大影响：亨利的改革强调了君主权力，自然加强了亨利的地位；议会以往从未做过如此漫长而重要的工作，自然其重要性也

有所加强；他对教皇权力的打击鼓舞许多人批评指责天主教会，并希望从天主教转向新教。

英语国家概况精讲系列（九）

The Restoration

王政复辟

When Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 and was succeeded by

his son, Richard, the regime began to collapse. One of Cromwell"s

generals George Monck, occupied London and arranged for new

parliamentary elections. The Parliament thus was elected in 1660

resolved the crisis by asking the late King"s son to return from his

exile in France as king Charles II. It was called the Restoration.

1658年奥利弗克伦威尔去世，他的儿子理查德继任护国公，政权立即开始瓦解。克伦威尔的一位将军乔治蒙克占领伦敦，安排新的议会选举。1660年选出的议会要求上一任国王的儿子长期流亡地法国回国作国王查尔斯二世，从而解决了危机。这就是所谓的王政复辟。The

Glorious Revolution of 1688

1688年光荣革命

In 1685 Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother

James II. James was brought up in exile in Europe, was a Catholic.

He hoped to rule without giving up his personal religious vies.

But England was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than

40 years ago. So the English politicians rejected James II, and

appealed to a Protestant king, William of Orange, to invade and

take the English throne. William landed in England in 1688. The

takeover was relatively smooth, with no bloodshed, nor any

execution of the king. This was known as the Glorious Revolution.

1685年查尔斯二世去世，由其弟詹姆斯二世继位。詹姆斯二世从小在欧洲流亡长大，是个天主教徒，他希望不放弃个人宗教信仰统治国家。但是1688的英国已不象40年前那样能容忍天主教徒当国王了。英国政客反对詹姆斯二世，他们呼吁信奉新教的国王，奥兰治亲王威谦入

侵英国夺取王位。1688年11月15日威廉在托尔比登陆并占领伦敦。这一占领相对平静，既未流血也未处死国王，所以就称为“光荣革命”。

The Gunpowder Plot of 1605

1605年

The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was the most famous of the

Catholic conspiracies. On Nov. 5,1605, a few fanatical Catholics

attempted to blow King James and his ministers up in the House

of Parliament where Guy Fawkes had planted barrels of gun-powder in the cellars. The immediate result was the execution of

Fawkes and his fellow-conspirators and imposition of severe

anti-Catholic laws. The long-term result has been an annual

celebration on Nov. 5, when a bonfire is lit to turn a guy and a

firework display is arranged.

1605年的火药阴谋案是最著名的天主教阴谋。1605年11月5日，几个狂热的天主教徒企图在议会大厦炸死国王和大臣，盖伊福克斯已在地窖放了炸药桶。结果是福克斯和同伙被立即处死，以及更严厉的反天主教法律的颁发。长斯结果是每年11月5日举行庆祝仪式，点燃火堆焚烧盖伊模拟像并燃放烟火。

英语国家概况精讲系列（十）

第五章

The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1688-1990)

大英帝国的兴衰

I. Whigs and Tories

辉格党人和托利党人

These two party names originated with the Glorious

Revolution (1688).

这两个政党名称皆起源于1688年的光荣革命。

The Whig were those who opposed absolute monarchy and

supported the right to religious freedom for Nonconformists.

The Whig were to form a coalition with dissident Tories in the

mid-19th century and become the Liberal Party.

辉格党人是指那些反对绝对王权，支持新教徒宗教自由权利的人。辉格党人在19世纪中叶与持不同意见的托利党人组盟组成自由党。

The Tories were those who supported hereditary monarchy

and were reluctant to remove kings. The Tories were the

forerunners of the Conservative Party.

托利党人是指那些支持世袭王权、不愿去除国王的人。托利党是保守党的前身。

I. Agricultural Changes in the Late 18th Century

18世纪末的农业革命

During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the “open-field” system ended when the Enclosure Act was passed. The

movement lasted for centuries. Agricultural enclosure had good

as well as bad results:

18世纪末、19世纪初的农业革命期间，随着《圈地法》的颁布，传统的“开放田地”制结束。圈地运动持续了将近一个多世纪。农业圈地运动的利弊共存：

（1）Farms became bigger and bigger units as the great

bought up the small;

由于大农场兼并了小农场，农场成为越来越在的生产单位；

（2）More vegetables, more milk and more dairy produce

were consumed, and diet became more varied;

人们消费的蔬菜，牛奶及奶制品越来越多，饮食种类愈加丰富；

（3）Enclosure was a disaster for the tenants evicted from

their lands by the enclosures. These peasant farmers were forced

to look for work in towns. Enclosure led to mass emigration,

particularly to the New World;

圈地对佃家而言是场灾难，他们被赶出土地，被迫到城镇找工作。圈地运动导致了大规模的移民，尤其是移民至新大陆。

（4）A new class hostility was introduced into rural

relationships.

农村关系中产生了新的阶级对立。

英语国家概况精讲系列（十一）

II. The Industrial Revolution (1780-1830)

工业革命（1780-1830）

1．The industrial Revolution refers to the mechanisation of

industry and the consequent changes in social and economic

organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

工业革命指的是17世纪末、18世纪初英国工业的机械化，以及因此而导致的社会结构和经济结构的变化。

2．Britain was the first country to industrialize because of the

following factors:

英国成为第一个工业化的国家，原因如下：

(1) Favourable geopraphical location. Britain was well placed

geographically to participate in European and world trade;

优越的地理位置：英国地理位置优越，适合参与欧洲与世界贸易；

(2) Political stability. Britain had a peaceful society, which,

after the 17th century, was increasingly interested in overseas

trade and colonies. International trade brought wealth to

merchants and city bankers. They and those who had done well

out of new farming methods provided capital in large quantities

for industralization.

政治局面稳定。17世纪后的英国社会宁静，对海外贸易和殖民地兴趣日增。国际贸易给商人和城市银行家带来财富，他们加上由于新农作法而发家的人们为工业化提供了大笔资金。

(3) Good foundation in economy. The limited monarchy

which resulted from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ensured that

the powerful economic interests in the community could exert

their influence over Government policy.

1688年光荣革命限制了君主的权力，这使得强大的经济利益集团能对议会政策施加影响。

(4) It was a country in which the main towns were never too

far from seaports, or from rivers, which could distribute their

products.

英国的主要城镇皆靠近海港或河流，货物运送便利。

(5) Britain had many rivers, which were useful for transport

but also for water and steam power. Britain also had useful

mineral resources.

英国许多河流不仅用于交通，还提供水力及蒸汽动力。英国还有可用的矿产资源。

(6) British engineers had sound training as craftsmen.

英国工程师为训练有素的手工艺人。

(7) The inventors were respected. They solved practical

problems.

发明家受人尊重，他们解决了实际难题。

8) Probably laissez faire and “Protestant work ethic”

helped.

很可能利益于“放手干”及“新教工作道德”。

(9) England, Scotland, and Wales formed a customs union

after 1707 and this included Ireland after 1807. So the national

market was not hindered by internal customs barriers.

1707年后，英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士形成关税联盟，1807年后爱尔兰加入。因此，全国市场不再受阴于内部的关税障碍。

(10) The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture

made their contributions by providing food for the rising

population, labour for the factories, and some of the raw

materials needed by industry.

圈地运动和其它农业改良为增加的人口提供了粮食，为工厂提供了劳动力，为工业提供了所

需的一些原材料。

3．Typical examples of the inventions during the Industrial

Revolution

工业革命中一些重大创新

(1) John Kay’s flying shuttle in 1733;

1733年，约翰凯的飞梭；

(2) James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny in 1766;

1766年詹姆士哈格里夫斯詹妮纺纱机；

(3) Richard Arkwright’s waterframe in 1769;

1769年理查德阿克赖特的水力纺织机；

(4) Samuel Crompton’s mule in 1779

1779年塞缪尔克朗普顿的走绽纺纱机；

(5) Edmund Cartwright’s power loom in 1784;

1784年爱德蒙卡特莱特发明的力织机；

(6) James Watt’s steam engine in 1765.

1765年詹姆斯瓦特的高效蒸汽机。

4．Consequences of the industrial Revolution

工业革命的结果

（1）Britain was by 1830 the “workshop of the world”;

英国成为了“世界工场”；

（2）Towns grew rapidly and became the source of the

nation’s wealth.

城镇迅速兴起，成为国家财富的源泉。

（3）Mechanization destroyed the livelihood of those who

could not invest in it . The working men worked and lived in a

appalling conditions.

机械化摧毁了不能投入其中的人们的生活。工人们在可怕的条件下劳动与生活。

（4）The industrial revolution created the industrial working

class, the proletariat, and it later led to trade unionism.

工业革命产生了工人阶级，即无产阶级。后来形成了工会制度。

英语国家概况精讲系列（十二）

III. The Chartist Movement (1836-1848)

宪章运动（1836-1848）

1. Reasons for parliamentary reforms.

议会改革的原因

(1) Power was monopolized by the aristocrats.

权力由贵族操纵。

(2) Representation of town and country, and North and

South was unfair.

城镇和农村，北方和南方的代表权极不平等。

(3) There were also various so-called rotten or pocket

boroughs.

还有各种称之为衰败或口袋选区的选区。

2．Three Reform Bills

三个改革法案

Between 1832 and 1884 three Reform Bills were passed.

1832年至1884年间通过了三个改革法案。

a) The Reform Act of 1832 (also called the “Greater Charter

of 1832) abolished “rotten boroughs”,