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《东南亚南亚研究》 2010年增刊 Threads that Can Bind:People of the Frontier Areas in China—India Cooperation Rajen Singh Laishram Abslraet:In a context of intense cooperation between China and India under new policy regimes and globalisation,this Essay argues for reviving normal pattern of relationship among people along the frontiers of China and India.These provinces besides being away from the administrative,industrial and production hubs ale also marked by one of the highest concentrations of poverty in the Asia—Pacific region,and continue to encounter problems of olpitical legiitmacy engendered by geography,history,culture,racil faactors,lack of specialized skills,capital formation.Revival of natural relationships may be the srtategy for development of fontrier provinces ofChina and ndIia,through construction of de corridors,exploitation of culturla sir0ialri— ites and enabling participation of communiites,even fostering links hrtough a third country.As nationaliites or communities sharing similar socio-cultural or primordial oneness ale interspersed on both sides of he btounda— y,itr is argued that ethnic communities carl be made to play a role in translating ethnic affinities into a last- ing,effective,and substntial cooperatiaon:beyond the state—centric security concerns to improve human se— curity.Trading activities along China and Indin farontiers are usually controlled by non—local‘other’peo- ple,who are ethnically/racillay diferent from the communiites settled at the fontrier.Therefore,systematic encouragement of participation of people may negate perceptions of exploitation,domination and alienation by he excltusionary tendencies of mlde.These factors which engender contest against t}Ie state in t}le frontiers of China and India can be rectiied thrfough encouraging participation of people in the activiies of China—Indtia cooperation.Trade along the China and India frontiers may never reach economies of scale and may be staffs— tically insigniifcant but it can make huge diference to the lives ofpeople living long ahe tfontrier.This Essay arues gorf more border trade oipnts,rather normal trade hrtough the borders and ensuring participation of vari— OilS ethnic communities spread along the frontiers. Key words:Threads;People of the Frontier Areas in China—India;Cooperation The Western Development Program of the People’S Republic of China,India’S Look East Policy and its Border Area Development Programs are some of the new policy orientations of the two Asian powers for development of respective landlocked,frontier provinces.The conception of a frontier,de一 作者简介:Rajen Singh Laishram,印度曼尼普尔大学社会科学学院政治学系副教授。 }因原文过长,本文在出版前做了摘编。 84 

ined by Mifchael Aris in his writing about Tibetan borderlands,as a zone‘in which all possible bounda— ties of geography,race and culture cross and over—lap to form a broad…transitional area of great complexity’is used in this Essay.Western Development Strategy seeks to develop 12 provinces,munic. ipalities and autonomous regions including Sichuan,Chongqing(centrally administered municipality), Yunnan,Guizhou,Guangxi and Tibet,which can be described as Chinese frontier provinces along In— dia.Consequently,provinces ale encouraged to chalk out strategies and execute it to bring overall de— velopment through exploration of connectivity and cooperation,even with provinces of the neighbouring countires. The Border Area Development Program regime of the Indian state is a‘comprehensive approach’ with focus on‘socio-economic development’of the provinces along India’s international borders cover- ing 358 border blocks of 94 districts of 17 frontier provinces.Out of these Himachal Pradesh,Jammu and Kashmir,Sikkim and Uttarkhand are the frontier provinces along with North East India,which by extension of the‘normal pattern of relationships’are the frontier provinces of India along the Sino-Indi— an border.For the provinces of North East India,which shares 98 percent of its border with other eoun— tries reviving the‘normal pattern of relationships’may be the stimulation which can dispel persisting problems of governance deficit by providing a scope for participation in the socio—economic process. Many communities in the peripheries have a rooted perception of exploitation and domination by the people and institutions designed at the Centre and suffers from alienation.The disruption of the normal pattern of relationship in the post-Colonila era were due to different political system and cuhure adopt— ed by respective countires.1eadership idiosyncrasies and clash of ambitions between China and India. As a corollary,the Western Development plan of China,India’s Look East Policy and Border Area De— velopment Program may complement each other instead of being competitive. Tradition of exchanges between the frontier provinces is expected as China and India shares more than 2000 kilometres of border,yet disputed.There were various trade routes since ancient time and intermittent tribal war for domination and honour as well incursions among disparate ethnic groups for eorvee labour,tax collection,both in China and India.For instnace,during the reign of King Khagem— ba of Manipur in mid 1 7 th Century he defeated a chief/king in Yunnan.who in most likelihood is the head of Yi ethnic nationality.Thus,trade and possible cultural exchanges—economic,cuhural,even expeditions from each sides—一spread as far as Manipur. The ancient links between Northeast India and southwest China until the advent of the European colonial powers are legion.In ancient times trade links were in existence along the frontiers such as the Southern Silk Road. There were more than 20 traditional trading routes between China and India through Tibet at differ- ent provinces.After the defeat of the Ava(Burmese)in 1 826 and erstwhile kingdom of Manipur in 1 89 1,British colonial administration tired to revive the old Burma route from Manipur to connect it for trade with Yunnan.But from 1950 onwards many of the traditional passes and routes between the two 85 

countries have remained closed.Now border trade is operational only at three points:Lipu Lekh, Nathu La and Shipki La.The severing of these traditional route require to be revised in the light of the improved economic and trade ties between China and India which has crossed US¥60 billion.Be— sides,the past sixty years of trust deficit between China and India can be replenish if people or commu— nities interspersed along the frontiers are encouraged to renew their normal pattern of relationships. Such relationships besides improving the overlla economic,socil and culatural life can also augment and ensure human security and will make basic necessity sourced from the nearby areas possible at comparatively cheaper rates.The possibility of cooperation in agricultural techniques,road construction and sharing experiences on hydropower construction activities because of‘similarities of natural circum— stances and conditions’and‘practical techniques exchange’may help in enhancing‘mutual trust.’ If we take into consideration the huge cost frontier provinces are made to bear on transportation of basic goods in a sparsely monetised economy,cross—border connectivity can certainly cut down the cost incurred in transportation. Most of the people settled along the frontiers.with the possible exception of he Khasits of megha. 1aya in India are linguistically and ethnically of the Tibeto-Burmese stock.Most of the tribes or nation- alities in North East India trace their origin to South of Yarlung Zangbo River.The Tai-Ahoms of As— sam as well as ethnic lowlander Meitei of Manipur valley are of the same stock as the Daizhus of Yun・ nan。Besides,Jingphos(Kachins),Lisu which is known as Youbin in Northeast India,Monpas and Ladakhis are of the Tibetan stock. e Khasis of North East Indian province of Meghalaya.one of the few matilrineal societies in India,migrated from Red River Delta in Vietnam passing through Myanmar nd Yunnan.a Differentil claassiicatfory modes of people or communities were used by scholars,rather colonial writers;thereby‘the same people are given different names in different accounts.At one time,a given people may be described as a distinct group.at another time as a sub—group of group…and…yet a— gain as comprising two distinct groups.’Elements of force can be detected in the case of relationship between people in the areas south of Tibetan stock,who are shown by Tibetan records to have paid ta- xes to Lhasa. There is widespread perception of discrimination among the communities at the frontiers of China and India,which is reflected at the attitudinal level as well in actuality. Frontier areas of both countiesr can be said to be run by‘people ethnically different from each em— pire g ruling elite or majority and there was little identiifcation with the centrla regimes.’Through strate— gic exploitation under the new‘public diplomacy’orientation,these communities interspersed along the China and India border can bind the two Asian giants for a lasting peace. The North Eastern and eastern provinces of India are envisaged to play its‘arrow-head’role in In— dia’s Look East Policy.The rhetoric aside and notwithstanding numerous policy pronouncements there is little visibility of the policy being implemented in actuality in the case of India.This is happening in R6 

a region which has been made handicapped by the partition of India,China—India war of 1 962 and In. dia—Pakistan War,which has virtually cut off the region and many outlying provinces along the frontier areas.The region with its long-established traditions of e0mmunity—based economic and social organi. sation has many similarities with nationalities dotting the Chinese frontiers along India. Economic and trade ties have improved between China and India.If only 10 percent of China and India trade volume is conducted along the borders,border trade has the potential to substantilly areduce high cost of transport,the price people in the frontiers have been unduly bearing.Moreover,such trade has the potential to give a ifllip to the legitimacy deficit and the surge for participation along the people of the Sino-India frontier.Yet,many problems of the frontier areas can be interpreted as a desire for participation in the process for a share in the spoils of the ever-increasing development activities and benefits accrued thereof,though frontier people have skill and capital handicap. Trade between Yunnan province and India which stands at US¥20,640,000 in 2003,was car- ried out mainly through sea trade,bypassing the landlocked frontier areas.Thus,the Kunming—to— Kolkata trade has no beneficil iampaat on the frontier provinces of India. What are the options China and India can adopt to augment the economic,socil,polaitical,cu1. turl and geographiacal handicap of the frontier provinces?China and India can adopt or adapt some of the modalities about border trade between Canada and United States of America and learn lessons from France—Germany cross—border trade and tourism moda1.If China has the technical capability and polit- ical will to build Qinghai-Tibet rail links,why cannot we extend this in building connectivity between China and India:instead of being permanent rivals.Besides,India can normalize or legalize informal trade,for instance at Dumchile in Ladakh as well explore possibility of legalizing trade through tarif concessions for goods coming from China through Ruili-Mandalay-TaBu,which has been doing brisk business.Along with this,it is time for both counties tro revive the Kibithoo,Tibet Road,the eastern. most and lowest in terms of altitude among all the possible trade routes between India and China through Tibet,China and the Karakorum pass in the north of Ladakh is the highest usable route to Xinjiang.An exploration into tourism potential in the frontier areas,which has not been opened fully,even during the European colonial rule,may be another area.We can also make Mount Kailash Mansarovar in Chi. na and,two holy places for pilgrimage open without much bureaucratic trappings. Assuming that severance of cross——border connectivity and networks is a policy designed to legiti・- mise state control of the remote frontier areas, but keeping the frontier areas under permanent wraps would amount to greater risk,particularly in this era of globalisation.Such a policy may also raise questions regarding denial of human security and systematic exploitation of the people settled along the frontiers at the hands of the majority ethnic groups.It is a fact that people in the frontiers are paying more prices for most of products supplied from other parts,in a hitherto non—monetised economy, which drains the hard-earned cash.The problems could have been manageable had communities in the rontfiers were of the same racil or etahnic categories:unfortunately not. 87 

Indian policy makers appear to have realised in the case of Northeast India that,‘rapid changes from a barter to monetised economy’and by passing of‘traditional institutions too soon and carelessly’ have not done wel1.Yet,as modemisation and development aye making constant foray in the frontier y- aeas,in the hitherto non—monetised economy,there is possibility of hish demands in the frontiers. There is possibility of high domestic demands in the frontiers,SO why not cross-border trade exploit this opportunity by expanding cultural,trade,even educational exchanges.Separating economic,cultural and educational interaction and exchanges from political considerations may do wel1.It is not mere pumping in of physical capital that may spur development and participation in the socio—political process of a given polity。Rather developing human capital in the frontier areas may generate productive labor force,lead to improvement in the income—earning ability of individuals,by generating knowledge -related businesses and employment,usher in economic efficiency and lbor productaivity.p ̄ople in the North East Indian provinces are known for their English lnguage skialls.Exploring possible areas on how to attract students from provinces of neighboring countries may do well just as University of Sikkim has done.The interior regions thus constitute a potentially large market. Whether the Decision-makers in India with visible‘inclination towards neo-feudalism’has any impact on the nature of the treatment of the frontiers requires a further probe,ranging from bureaucracy which we often laments for its lack of openness and fixed mindset.There is tendency among leadership tO blame history‘victimhood of colonialism’一and divert issues as a legacy of history‘left over by his— tory.’Such attitude and mindset of the leadership only divert the frontier issue as imagination. (蒋茂霞摘编) [责任编辑:李丽] 88 


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